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Heavy Metal Contamination of Soils and Water Resources around the Kettara Abandoned Mine

Problem statement: Metal mining; together with mineral smelting and processing, have contaminated the environment surrounding mine areas throughout the world exceeding natural background concentration. Approach: These processes introduce metal contaminants into the environment through gaseous and particulate emissions, waste liquids and solid wastes. The principal objective of this study was to investigate soil and water contamination in the vicinity of the kettara abandoned mine located in the South of Morocco. Results: High total concentrations of heavy metals were found in both tailings and soil samples. Furthermore in the tailings the maximum concentrations of the mobile fraction of metals were 76, 80 and 79 mg kg^-1 of Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively, for the soil samples the maximum concentrations values were 68, 52 and 26 mg kg^-1 of Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively. As a result of dispersion of the metals downstream and downslope, soils contained higher metal concentrations than those from nearby control sites (P<0.05). This may be due to surface runoff and strong wind action which caused the movement of mine waste material. The chemical properties of tailings were characterized by very low pH and high levels of EC. Furthermore, in the wet season the water from kettara mine contained elevated levels of Cu, Pb, Zn and SO₄². Conclusion/Recommendations: According to this study, the agricultural activity in the vicinity of the kettara mine requires careful consideration. Recultivation of the tailings and the remediation of surface water and soil are recommended.

The Water Demand Management by Monitoring the Technology Performance and the Water Use Efficiency

Problem statement: Given the climate constraints and the limited resources, Tunisia has developed the irrigated sector in order to diversify the agricultural production and to meet the food needs of the population. Today the policy of water supply reaches its limits and the efforts should be turned to the management of the water demand. Within this context, this research aims to analyze the farming system, the technology performance and the water use efficiency of the irrigated farms in the Sidi Bouzid region. Approach: By monitoring the sample of 47 farms during the harvesting years 2007, 2008 and 2009 we have gathered database which involved technical and economical details. By analyzing the farming system we have identified the technology process in order to estimate the production frontier using the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach. The sub-vector approach of the DEA model was used to compute the water use efficiency. Results: The empirical findings showed that farmers grow olive trees, cereal crops, forage crops and horticulture crops. During the surveyed period the share of the different crops did not change significantly. The water consumption reaches only an average of 2700 m³/ha. However, the charge of irrigation represents more than 40% out of the total expenditures. The results of the DEA model showed that 50% of farms are inefficient and the technical efficiency reaches an average of 81%. The average of the scale efficiency reached 88%. However, the water use efficiency did not exceed an average of 68%. Hence, 32% of the water currently used should be saved. Conclusion: There is a wide gap to improve skills and the ability of the farmers to achieve the best of the water use efficiency. Thus, we suggest that the state intervention is necessary not only to reduce the wasting of water but also to set up an accompanying device that reconciles water conservation and the production targets.

Threat of the Health Quality of Garden Produces Linked to Pollution by Toxic Metals on Some Gardening Sites of Benin

Problem statement: Water and soil are vital resources used in agriculture. Current data establish a link between the pollution of soil, water and public health. For this reason, this study attempted to establish a link between the level of pollution of garden sites in lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd) and Arsenic (As) and the health quality of vegetables grown there, through the quality of soil and of the irrigation water. Approach: Composite samples of vegetables, irrigation water and soil taken in the same periods at two garden sites in the city of Cotonou and another one in the village of Aplahoue, were analyzed for Pb, Cd and As by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The amounts (average ± SD) have been compared by the statistical Student p test (T>t) = 0.05. Results: The results show that all the vegetables grown on the three sites are differently contaminated with Pb, Cd and As, as well as their irrigation water and the soil. However, the link attempted to be established between pollution of soil, irrigation water and quality of vegetables, could not be obvious, it has been discussed. Soil pollution with toxic metals seems to be of minor importance and does not directly influence the contamination of vegetables Conversely to soil pollution, the levels of contamination of irrigation water by trace metals (Cd and As) are much closer to that of vegetables, apart Pb. However, the high urban and atmospheric pressures in Cotonou have significantly influenced the contamination. For, it is in Aplahoue, farming environment, that the lowest amounts of metals in water and in the vegetables have been recorded. Conclusion/Recommendations: There is a risk of contamination in the food chain by heavy metals whose consumption through these gardening products could cause public health problems. Thus, the adoption of reasonable behavior and the development of new technologies are needed to associate food security, economic development, the preservation of the environment and public health.

Olive Wastewaters' Impact on Oued Boufekrane in Meknes-Tafilalet

Problem statement: Water quality of river Boufekrane is subject to heavy pollution exerted by population growth and industrial activity, including the OMW from the olive industry in which the presence of polyphenols and toxic effect dominant character may generate a higher organic pollution. Approach: Our objective is to "study the impact of OMW by analyzing the physicochemical parameters on seven sites along the bed of the Oued Boufekrane and value of Olive Mill Wastewater (OMW) polyphenols extracted as a biopesticide to contribute to environmental sustainability. Results: Results in quality that Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Total Solid (TSS) greatly exceed the discharge standards of WHO and the pollution of the Oued Boufekrane increases from Ain Maarouf (source control) and downstream, therefore, these waters may be used either for irrigation or for swimming. Conclusion/Recommendations: The principal component analysis allowed us to confirm the spatiotemporal correlation between physicochemical parameters and stations of the river Boufekrane. Analysis of variance of OMW polyphenols against the pest aphid (Aphis citricola) found after 24 h exposure by ANOVA and followed by the Sheffe test at 1% used as polyphenols, compared with controls significantly affect the survival of stages in a statistically comparable according to the concentration.

Ecological Sanitation in Morocco Promotion of the Urine-Diversion Dehydration Toilets-Case of Dayet Ifrah

Problem statement: Most of people in rural areas in Morocco don�t have adequate systems of collection, evacuation and transport of black and gray water. They simply defecate in nature. There is a huge demand, which cannot possibly be met by conventional sanitation systems due to the enormous costs of the pipe network, lack of water and serious environmental drawbacks in order to avoid the disadvantages of conventional wastewater systems. For this reason, we have thought to promote ecological sanitation, or �ecosan� for short, that recognizes human excreta and water from households not as a waste but as resources that can be recovered, treated where necessary and safely used again. Ecosan is a philosophy which houses a multitude of different technologies applied in ecological sanitation projects such as Urine Diversion Dehydration Toilets (UDDT). Approach: The scope of the study was to highlight the ecosan promotion strategies and policies for its adoption by the future ecosan users in Morocco and to show that the development of ecosan pilot systems adapted to the sociocultural context of Morocco is possible and can be used as model for rural areas. Ecosan systems studied had been implemented in a small rural area in Morocco called �Dayet Ifrah�. But, it�s necessary at the beginning to sensitize people in Dayet Ifrah and to convince to adopt and accept urine diversion dehydration toilets. Marketing has been more successful than anything else in changing the behavior of people when they can see direct personal benefits. Choosing a (social) marketing approach means that the attractiveness of the product is one important factor. That was what happened in 2009. Results: After this phase of sensitizing, results reveal that the households were convinced of the benefits these infrastructures afford them. Ecosan reduces the health risks related to sanitation, contaminated water and waste, prevents the pollution of surface and groundwater, prevents the degradation of soil fertility and optimizes the management of nutrients and water resources. Conclusion: The users are satisfied with the ecosan approach to cleanse their wastewater. Our work shows that ecosan can succeed in very poor populations. It is particularly relevant as locomotors of agricultural economics.

Groundwater Flow Systems and Their Response to Climate Change: A Need for a Water-System View Approach

Problem statement: The interest in early hydrogeological studies was the aquifer unit, as it is the physical media that stores and permits groundwater transfers from the recharge zone to the discharge zone, making groundwater available to boreholes for water extraction. Approach: Recently, the aquifer concept has been complemented by the groundwater flow system theory, where groundwater may be defined by local, intermediate and regional flow systems. This implies that groundwater may travel from one aquifer unit to another aquifer unit (or more) located above or below the former. Water in a local flow system takes months or several years to travel from the recharge to the discharge zone. These flows usually transfer the best natural quality water, so a reduction in precipitation would lessen recharge and diminish stored water, making them more vulnerable to contamination and variability in climatic conditions. Thus, there is a need to define local flows and to enhance actions to protect them from contamination and inefficient extraction. Results: In contrast to local flows, intermediate and regional flows travel from a region, or country, into another, with their recharge processes usually taking place in a zone located far away from the discharge zone (natural or by boreholes). There is a need of groundwater flow systems evaluation by means of an integrated wide system-view analysis of partial evidence represented by surface (soil and vegetation covers) as well as hydraulic, isotopic and chemical groundwater characterization in the related geological media where the depth of actual basement rock is paramount as well as discharge areas. The flow system definition may assist in extraction management strategies to control related issues as subsidence, obtained the water quality change, desiccation of springs and water bodies, soil erosion, flooding response, contamination processes in recharge areas, among others; many of which could be efficiently managed leaning on groundwater functioning. There is increasing evidence that climate becoming more variable and key driver of ecosystem health. Even with climate stability, most developing countries will confront serious water problems by the mid-21st century due to an insufficient knowledge of the functioning of their groundwater sources representing ≈ 99% of available water. Conclusion: Many such problems may be adequately controlled when local flows are defined, since changes in climatic condition are more prone to affect local flows rather than intermediate and regional flows. The value of the flow systems arises from the fact that a wide system view analysis allows adequate crossed examination among relevant data from where water management proposals might more adequately represent field conditions. Examples of successful application of the groundwater flow systems in Mexico and Argentina will be presented including: induced fluoride control, subsidence response, desiccation of springs, flooding water origin definition, basement position in flow-system control, inter-basin flow.

Ecological Monitoring of Danube water Quality in Budapest Region

Problem statement: Serious health problems and other economic costs related to water treatment, remediation and locating a new water supply, become an evidence of water pollution caused by human activities. The main problems of the Danube River basin are associated with nutrients, organic pollution and hazardous pollutants. The aim of the study is to assess the surface water of the Danube in Budapest for sustainability of human and environment health. Approach: The monitoring assessment of comparative studies was carried out in June of 1998, 2005 and 2010 using the Hungarian standard methods. The samples were collected in sterile dark bottles from three different zones in Budapest. Results: The results demonstrated that dissolved organic carbon content, nutrient pollution (total N and P), bacteriological parameters and chlorophyll-a content were higher in 2005 than in 1998 and 2010. The results indicated that the bacteriological assessments and bacterial populations were low in 1998 in comparison with the results of 2010. In 2005, investigations illustrate the high fecal pollution. The data showed no significant differences between temperature, pH and Electrical conductivity in 1998, 2005 and 2010. Conclusion/Recommendations: Monitoring of the water by physicochemical and bacteriological is essential to identify the aquatic ecosystem hazards. The relation between O₂ and Chl-a content of the samples, clearly shows that the cause of high dissolved O₂ content in the water lies in accelerated primary production. Enumerations of both total and fecal Coliforms are continuously growing during the investigation periods. These results suggested that bacteriological properties can be a specific indicator of fecal contamination and organic pollution. With large numbers of new chemical substances entering the river ecosystem, continuous monitoring systems for their detection will become increasingly important with respect to environmental effects they produce, in addition to other toxic effects. The challenges to continuous physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological monitoring will be immense.

An Applied Study on the Debris Recycling in Tunnelling

Problem statement: A simple calculation has shown what the impact of muck created during the construction of a hypothetical 50 km long and 100 m² cross section tunnel could be on the environment: around 8 million cubic meters would have to be discharged as waste material. One solution to such a problem could be to recycle (almost a part) the earth material, that is, the muck and debris that are excavated from the tunnel face. Approach: In order to verify the possibility of using some different breakers from the ones used in the handling plant on the studied tunnel-access, some tests were performed in the DITAG laboratory at the Politecnico DI Torino. Results and Conclusion: Different cut dimensions were considered in the recycling of the muck material from the tunnel excavation using TBMs. The obtained material, mixed with natural sands and gravels according to various hypotheses, corresponds to the dimensional requirements for the shotcrete and concrete aggregates. The optimal solution should be the mixture of the best fines produced by TBM, the products of the broken rock and some percentage of natural sands and gravels. The final choice will depend on economic factors and obviously also on the particular features in the work sites.

Importace of the International Council of Environmental Engineering Education

Problem statement: Due to the climatic changes and the ecological variations of the biosphere, global natural resources including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biodiversities, genetic resources and energy, radiation, electric charge and magnetism, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning and management as appropriate. Approach: The main points of the International Council of Environmental Engineering Education (ICEEE) are to enhance services to its members, work with educational and research institutions to improve environmental engineering education and technology and promote the undergraduate university degree (B.Sc.), graduate higher degree (M.Sc.) and Ph.D. development, facilitate productive cooperation among industry, academy and government, enhance the participation and success of under-represented groups in the environmental engineering education enterprise, promote the value of the engineering profession, unify the environmental engineering education programs throughout the World Countries and exchange the environmental engineering education professionalism among international institutions. Results: Based on the above mentioned concepts, the Obuda University, Rejto Sandor Faculty of Light Industry and Environmental Protection Engineering (Budapest, Hungary), the Technical University of Kosice, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (Kosice, Slovakia), Uzhhorod National University, Faculty of Chemistry at the (Uzhhorod, Ukraine), Polytechnic Engineering College of Subotica and the UNESCO Chair in Water Resources-Sudan (UNESCO-CWR) agreed to establish an international organization dealing with environmental engineering education management. Conclusion: The dynamic development of our professional reforms and combined with effective use of scientific potentials agreed to improve the standards of environmental engineering education. Our institutions are agreed to fund and serve as the premier multidisciplinary council for individuals and organizations committed to promote all aspects of environmental engineering and engineering technology education. This study about ICEEE defines several of the basic components of the environmental engineering and engineering technology professions and the educational processes needed to produce qualified environmental engineers for the future.

Overview of Membrane Processes for the Recovery of Polyphenols from Olive Mill Wastewater

Problem statement: Olive Mill Wastewater (OMW) is an ambivalent by-product of the olive oil production, which appears in huge amounts every year after the olive-harvest in the production countries, mainly in the Mediterranean region. OMW is characterized by a high organic load and i.a. contains considerable amounts of phytotoxical polyphenols, which cause important environmental problems. Approach: Due to their antioxidant properties the use of these polyphenols is also popular in several industry branches, which results in high sale values for this group of chemicals. The removal of polyphenols from biological wastewaters like OMW does not only reduce the pollutant load but also shows great potential for a beneficial recovery of these antioxidants. This is the reason why a growing number of studies deal with a combined wastewater treatment, which, besides water purification, also regards the ability of recovering polyphenols. This article is an overview of reports concerning polyphenol recovery from OMW via membrane technologies. Results: Patents and studies, which appeared in literature, are reviewed in order to identify the potential of membranes as well as making comparisons possible. Some pretreatments, feasible for membrane processes, are covered. Depending on the initial wastewater and its polyphenol content the concentration in the obtained solution ranges from 0.5-19.3 g L^-1 polyphenols. An example mentioned in WO2005/123603 even obtains a concentration of 30 g L^-1. Polyphenols such as hydroxytyrosol, protocatechuic acid, tyrosol, caffeic acid and oleuropein were found in this concentrate and make it suitable for the use in industry. Conclusion: The membrane processes in sequential design in particular show good results and offer an alternative to other OMW treatments especially in terms of polyphenol recovery.